Raymond S. Nickerson
Raymond S. Nickerson is a psychologist who wrote the 1998 review Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises, published in Review of General Psychology. The review gathers experimental and applied evidence on how people seek, notice and remember information that fits what they already believe.
Who they are
Nickerson is the author of a review of confirmation bias that appeared in Review of General Psychology in 1998, in volume 2, issue 2.
Key papers
Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175-220. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175.
Key ideas
Nickerson defines confirmation bias as looking for, or interpreting, evidence in ways that favour a belief or expectation already held. The review sets out experimental evidence for many forms of the tendency, gives examples from everyday and professional settings, considers possible causes and asks whether the tendency is ever useful. Among the findings he reports, people tend to notice and recall information that fits their existing views, and this can occur without deliberate intent. In a mock jury study he cites, participants recalled statements that fitted their chosen verdict as having been presented, including some that were not. This site draws on the review for the second of three processes linked to the frequency illusion.
Sources
- Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175-220. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175.