All frames are not created equal: A typology and critical analysis of framing effects
Irwin Levin, Sandra Schneider and Gary Gaeth start from the observation that studies of framing information in positive or negative terms have produced mixed results, and argue that this is because they define framing in different ways and so measure different underlying processes. They propose a typology of three kinds of framing, the risky-choice framing introduced by Tversky and Kahneman, attribute framing and goal framing, describe each with examples and likely mechanisms, and argue that the typology resolves inconsistencies in the literature.
Irwin Levin, Sandra Schneider and Gary Gaeth start from the observation that studies of framing information in positive or negative terms have produced mixed results, and argue that this is because they define framing in different ways and so measure different underlying processes. They propose a typology of three kinds of framing, the risky-choice framing introduced by Tversky and Kahneman, attribute framing and goal framing, describe each with examples and likely mechanisms, and argue that the typology resolves inconsistencies in the literature.
Written from the abstract as published with the paper, read 2026-10-28.
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Levin, I. P., Schneider, S. L., & Gaeth, G. J. (1998). All frames are not created equal: A typology and critical analysis of framing effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 76(2), 149-188. doi:10.1006/obhd.1998.2804 https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2804